It is customary to identify the Italian neo-avant-garde with the Gruppo 63. Scholars are familiar with its genesis, history, aesthetic choices, ideological debates, and the ideological fracture it experienced at the end of the 1960s, along with the decisions it made in the face of the student and worker movements. However, this prominent current overshadowed another concomitant neo-avant-garde movement that emerged in Italy along with Gruppo 63: visual poetry, represented at the beginning by GRUPPO 70. The Italian contingent played a significant role among the international verbal-visual avant-gardes and merits closer examination.
Founded in Florence in 1963[1], Gruppo 70 designated its work as “poesia visiva”, a variation on visual poetry distinguished by its prominent use of collage and its political militancy. Unfortunately, the English language does not distinguish between these two types of poetry, and the term “visual poetry” encompasses both.
Despite the potential for confusion arising from the group’s name, Gruppo 70’s artistic exploration began in the early 1960s, coinciding with that of Gruppo 63 and often sharing similar discussions. Visual poetry establishes a poetics that engages in a dynamic dialogue with the avant-garde movements of the early twentieth century, including Dadaism, Surrealism, and most importantly, Futurism. It also interacts with conceptual art, pop art, action painting, advertising graphics, and propaganda posters. Visual poetry integrates images, drawings, photographs, collages, and words, exploiting the graphic potential of letters. For this reason, Lamberto Pignotti frequently refers to visual poetry as “Technological Poetry” or “Large Collage” differentiating it from traditional collage[2].
Despite the fact that they call themselves poets, these authors are artists as well. Disciplinary critics have difficulty with defining them, as they use visual art (painting, photography, video) as well as words[3]. This synthesis of arts gives rise to a conception of poetry that can be summarised with the concept of total poetry expressed by Adriano Spatola[4].
Amidst a plethora of poetic experimentations encompassing modalities such as sound, found, random, concrete, automatic, artificial, elementary, and electronic poetry, the 1970s heralded the global emergence of visual poetry, with the Italian movement emerging as a seminal touchstone for artists spanning geographical boundaries. Visual poetry, as an artistic paradigm, advocates for an active engagement of the audience in the process of artistic creation, thereby fostering a mode of communication that prioritizes dialectical interaction. This conceptual framework of visual poetry serves as a countervailing force against the entrenched power dynamics perpetuated by systems of hierarchical information control, as well as the attendant passivity engendered within the public sphere.
Central to the ethos of visual poetry is its oppositional stance against the hegemony of cultural norms promulgated by the establishment. Notably, proponents of this form of poetic expression conceive of poetry as a form of insurgent resistance against the prevailing cultural paradigms, exemplified by the analytical scrutiny of Roland Barthes in his seminal work of 1967, wherein he dissected the logo-technique pervasive within the realm of fashion. Concurrently, in the same epoch, Pignotti’s Una forma di lotta: contro l’anonimato dei prodotti in serie della civiltà tecnologica[5] propounded congruent themes, thereby corroborating the convergent ideological underpinnings shared by proponents of visual poetry in their confrontation with established cultural mores.
Lamberto Pignotti espouses the notion of art as an inherently democratic conduit, arising from the quotidian fabric of existence. He underscores the endeavors of visual poets in their concerted efforts to engender a broader spectrum of flexibility and emancipation within the realm of communication, thereby contravening the hegemonic semantic and political frameworks of power. These practitioners keenly observe the emergent lexicons of expression, engaging in a dialectical interplay characterized by acts of parody, deconstruction, and challenge. Operating within a democratic ethos, Pignotti extends his analytical gaze towards the realm of advertising messages[6], discerning therein both the contours of cultural dissemination and the mechanisms of ideological imposition. In this manner, the visual poem assumes the guise of an artistic artifact that eludes facile assimilation by the machinations of the culture industry.
Exploring the Socio-Cultural Landscape of the 1960s: Antecedents to Social Revolutions
The 1960s stand as a pivotal epoch in the annals of visual poetry, marked by a confluence of artistic experimentation and socio-political upheaval. Within this milieu, Lamberto Pignotti, often hailed as the progenitor of visual poetry, unveiled his seminal series, Il dissenso[7], wherein the exploration of political themes assumed paramount significance. Notably, within the eighth installment of this series, Adriano Spatola’s incendiary proposition of political poster-manifestos galvanized the artistic landscape, employing a repertoire of provocation, irony, and surprise to subvert entrenched artistic conventions.
In Manifesto per il Congo, Spatola orchestrates a jarring montage, melding figures from the colonial era in a tumultuous stylistic homage to Hieronymus Bosch’s oeuvre. Through a cacophony of images, the author vehemently denounces Western interventionism in the post-colonial milieu, employing a lexicon infused with the acridity of racism. Emblazoned in capital letters, the manifesto exhorts: «È LA TESTA DI NEGRO CHE BISOGNA COLPIRE E IL NEGRO È L’UOMO CHE DEVE MORIRE» (“It is the black head that must be struck and the black man who must die”), encapsulating the visceral intensity of Spatola’s indictment. Moreover, through the evocative imagery of a bloated fish disgorging cadavers and entreaties for liberation, Spatola articulates a scathing critique of colonial exploitation.
Similarly, in Manifesto per il Vietnam[8], Spatola employs collage as a medium of dissent, juxtaposing the imagery of US Marines with grotesque parasitic entities feasting on carnage and excreting radioactive waste. Here, the monstrous amalgamation of insect and helicopter symbolizes the mechanized brutality of warfare, reminiscent of the disconcerting aesthetic of Georges Grosz and the disarticulation of Picasso’s Guernica.
The specter of war loomed large in the artistic consciousness of the 1960s, with Miccini’s La legge del napalm[9] offering a trenchant critique of the Vietnam War. By superimposing the title over an advertisement for a luxury Porsche, Miccini exposes the commodification of violence and the complicity of consumer culture in perpetuating imperialist ventures. The irony is multiplied by the sentence of the advertisement “Un lusso per pochi”.
Likewise, Ketty La Rocca’s Bianco Napalm confronts the paradoxical juxtaposition of innocence and carnage, evoking the chemical annihilation wrought by warfare. In the collage, the author uses also a priest’s picture who makes easier the link with a “bianco Natal”, a comfortable “white Christmas”.
Beyond the realm of warfare, visual poets engaged with broader socio-political themes. Pignotti’s La rivoluzione toglie il dolore navigates the interstices of political discourse and aesthetic contemplation, juxtaposing political lexicon with seductive imagery. This polysemic collage invites the viewer to discern the subversive undercurrents beneath the veneer of beauty, embodying a paradigm of active engagement with the socio-political milieu. The words contrast beauty and also cover the pupil, creating a disturbing effect inspired by Picasso’s style. The title of the work refers to the cultural revolution that would take place in a few years.
The conveyed message exhibits polysemy, thereby necessitating the active engagement of the spectator in deciphering the interplay between the visual satire embedded within the image and the underlying political subtext. Such interpretive agency underscores the viewer’s role as an intellectually discerning participant in the socio-political discourse, thus positioning them not merely as passive recipients of standardized and expedited information, but rather as thoughtful agents of societal transformation. This artistic endeavor exemplifies the prescient consciousness of Gruppo 70, attuned as they were to a profound ideological scrutiny of the prevailing socio-cultural milieu, a trend discernible even amidst the tumultuous landscape of the 1960s.
Moreover, the linguistic-cultural-media evolution emerged as a locus of artistic inquiry, as exemplified by Pignotti’s Divampa la guerriglia nel linguaggio[10]. Here, the juxtaposition of ancient textual fragments with modern typographical repetitions underscores the erosion of linguistic richness in the age of mass media, serving as a poignant commentary on the impoverishment of contemporary discourse.
Even amidst the cultural ferment of 1968, visual poets remained attuned to the zeitgeist, as evidenced by Michele Perfetti’s sardonic composition Contestazione calda[11] (1969). Through the juxtaposition of feminine allure with the iconography of political dissent, Perfetti skewers the commodification of rebellion and the co-optation of radicalism by mainstream media.
Furthermore, the specter of atomic anxiety permeated the artistic consciousness, as evidenced by Miccini’s L’Europa domani and Pignotti’s Un boato enorme. These works encapsulate the existential dread engendered by the omnipresent threat of nuclear annihilation, underscoring the enduring relevance of visual poetry as a medium of socio-political critique.
In sum, the visual poetry of the 1960s represents a confluence of aesthetic innovation and socio-political dissent, bearing witness to the tumultuous currents of an era defined by war, revolution, and cultural upheaval. As artists grappled with the existential angst of the atomic age and the commodification of dissent, visual poetry emerged as a potent medium of resistance, inviting viewers to interrogate the prevailing orthodoxy and envision alternative futures.
The transition at the end of the 1960s lead to a more constant political commitment in the following years, reaching its peak in the early 1970s.
Exploring the Socio-Political Dynamics of the 1970s: A Decade of Revolutionary Movements
The trajectory of visual poetry, originating in the early 1960s, burgeoned into an international phenomenon throughout the subsequent decade, assuming an increasingly socio-political orientation by the 1970s. Concurrent with this evolution, authors coalesced around periodicals bearing titles evincing clear militant intent, such as «Lotta Poetica», «Il Dissenso», and «E/MANA/AZIONE».
In tandem with the proliferation of periodicals, the verbal-visual experience of the 1970s attained a heightened ideological resonance, owing in part to the deployment of novel techniques augmenting the expressive potential of visual poetry, notably through the integration of photography.
a) Wars and Violence in the World
Within this milieu, certain authors exhibited a heightened sensitivity towards the analysis of injustice, violence, and exploitation. Eugenio Miccini’s Viaggio tra le nuvole (1971) exemplifies this ethos, employing a collage of images and text to evoke the horrors of the Vietnam War while characterizing visual poetry as a potent instrument of guerrilla warfare.
Similarly, Sarenco and Paul de Vree utilized photography as a conduit for conveying ideological messages, with textual elements assuming didactic import in dialogue with the visual register. Sarenco’s La famiglia della vittima è stata avvertita[12] (1971) or Intervento (1973) poignantly captures the cold-blooded brutality of guerrilla warfare, while De Vree’s Belf(e)ast[13] (1971), Revolution (1972), and Strike (1974) scrutinize global conflicts through an ironic lens.
Lamberto Pignotti aptly elucidates the transformative potential of visual poetry, positing it as an agent of societal metamorphosis operating at the nexus of linguistic innovation and class struggle[14]. De Vree’s works, characterized by a pronounced ironic tenor, such as Pacem in terris (1973), subvert ecclesiastical iconography to spotlight the inherent dissonance between religious rhetoric and militaristic fervor. The panel refers to the papal encyclical Pacem in terris issued by Pope John XXIII on 11 April 1963 – in which the author represents a military tank placed on the title’s letters. The inscription is repeated dozens of times, blurred, as typewritten, and slightly overlapping the characters. The juxtaposition of the symbol of war, the tank, with the ecclesiastical quotation, creates an ironic dissonance.
Sarenco’s articulation of the artistic and political imperatives underpinning his poetry underscores a pervasive preoccupation with the confluence of politics and aesthetics within the visual poetry milieu. The denunciation of military violence in the world assumes a central thematic locus within the corpus of visual poetry, juxtaposing word and image to incite critical reflection and interrogate prevailing socio-political orthodoxies, as well as a new role for art in the society[15].
Moreover, visual poets extend their critique beyond the realm of armed conflict to encompass the pernicious influence of mass media and systemic discrimination against women. In this endeavor, they draw upon the concept of the “distancing effect”, as expounded by Bertolt Brecht, to imbue their work with a provocative and disorienting resonance aimed at unsettling conventional modes of perception. Pignotti’s invocation of Kieslowski’s cinematic oeuvre underscores the eclectic array of influences informing the visual poetry movement, which, in its multifaceted engagement with socio-political realities, remains a potent vehicle for dissent and societal critique[16].
b) Intersections of Cultural Transformation and Political Unrest: The Dynamics of the Cultural Revolution and Terrorism
Within the kaleidoscopic milieu of the cultural revolution that swept through the 1960s and 1970s, Lamberto Pignotti embarked on a provocative exploration encapsulated in his series of works titled Living Theatre (1970). Named after the avant-garde theatre company of the era, the title of Pignotti’s series also alludes to the notion of life being theatrically staged, a concept popularized by Guy Debord in his critique of the spectacle-dominated society[17].
In these panels, Pignotti interweaves press photographs capturing political trials, the Vietnam War, and scenes of urban guerrilla warfare with the motif of a theater curtain emblazoned with the words “Living Theatre”. This juxtaposition serves to underscore the theatricalization of real-life violence, blurring the boundaries between reality and spectacle.
Similarly, Sarenco and Paul de Vree intensified their ideological endeavors during this period, crafting artworks that starkly underscored the pervasive violence endemic within society[18]. Emblematic of this trend is Sarenco’s Poetical License series, wherein, for example, a segment of public unrest depicting youths wielding sticks against a collapsing policeman is juxtaposed with a minimalistic textual intervention reading “Poetical License” (1972). This juxtaposition serves to inject a note of ironic commentary into the raw intensity of the visual imagery. The same commentary appears in Transfert (1974). In the photograph, a young protester, female, wearing a miniskirt, sandals and a short-sleeved blouse is launching a big stone.
Sarenco further aligned himself with the class struggle and student-worker movements through works such as Avanti Popolo (1973) and the series Identificazioni Politiche, which starkly depict the violence of the “Years of Lead” through mugshot-like portraits.
Eugenio Miccini, another stalwart of the visual poetry movement, directed his ideological fervor towards critiquing symbols of the burgeoning oil economy and evoking scenes of urban warfare. In Fiamme sulla Città (1971), Miccini marks the symbols of oil signs on the map of Florence with fiery rings, allegorically alluding to revolutionary aspirations aimed at dismantling the energy-productive apparatus of the city. As in Bianciardi’s novel, La vita agra (1962), he alludes to a revolutionary plan, consisting of the control of the energy-productive system of the city, dealing with the finality of blowing up the system.
Miccini’s Piano Insurrezionale della Città di Firenze (1971) reimagines the official map of Florence’s master plan, overlaying it with a large red stain reminiscent of blood, inscribed with the phrase “we will have been poets”. This evocative imagery conveys a sense of impending revolutionary upheaval, wherein the memory of poetic resistance transcends the violence of the revolution.
Among Miccini’s oeuvre, Uragano (1973) stands out for its complexity, wherein an intricate narrative unfolds against a backdrop of popular revolt. Through a collage of phrases juxtaposed atop a marching procession, Miccini elucidates his ideological stance, evoking the forceful impact of the hurricane of ideas upon the West. This composition, characterized by its violent stylistic dissonance, serves as a potent allegory for the tumultuous upheaval of the era.
In articulating his stylistic choices, Miccini underscores the inherent violence of transgressing linguistic and artistic traditions, echoing the sentiments of Majakovsky regarding the interplay between style and content in artistic expression. Indeed, the verbal and visual violence woven throughout the works of Miccini and his contemporaries serve to narrate a visceral tale of societal unrest and ideological fervor, wherein artistic expression becomes a potent vehicle for subverting established norms and challenging prevailing power structures[19].
c) The Magazines: «Lotta Poetica»
In 1971, the inception of the magazine «Lotta Poetica»[20] marked a significant milestone in the dissemination of visual poetry on an international scale. Founded in Brescia, Italy, the magazine emerged from a collaborative effort between Sarenco (the pseudonym of Isaia Mabellini) and the Belgian artist Paul de Vree, renowned for his stewardship of the experimental poetry magazine «De Tafelronde» in Antwerp. Italian artists such as Gianni Bertini, Emilio Isgrò, Lucia Marcucci, Eugenio Miccini, Michele Perfetti, Luciano Ori, and Franco Vaccari, alongside international artists including Jean François Bory, Herman Damen, and Alain Arias Misson, contributed to the publication, endowing it with a distinctly cosmopolitan character[21].
«Lotta Poetica» manifested in three distinct series spanning from June 1971 to November 1987, each characterized by an overtly political-poetic ethos suffused with themes of violence and revolution. The cover design, unaltered across the first twelve issues of the inaugural series, featured an arresting image depicting Gianni Bertini clutching the barrel of a rifle aimed directly at the reader ‒ a gesture emblematic of the publication’s confrontational stance. Implicit in its title was an invocation of warfare or “guerrilla warfare”, a recurring motif emblematic of the artists’ symbology and ethos. Through such imagery, the magazine sought to underscore poetry’s role as a catalyst for revolutionary change, transcending the mere depiction of violence to actively foment societal upheaval.
Central to the ethos of «Lotta Poetica» was its steadfast commitment to independence from commercial imperatives, eschewing advertising revenue in favor of financial autonomy. Sarenco articulated the magazine’s resolute autonomy in the editorial, outlining its principled rejection of the official publishing market. In affirming the magazine’s unwavering commitment to autonomy, Sarenco underscored its alignment with the broader struggle against bourgeois cultural hegemony and its solidarity with the vanguard of the working class and student movement[22].
Moreover, «Lotta Poetica» engaged in a polemical critique of the prevailing economic structures within the art world, challenging institutions such as the Venice Biennale and castigating conceptual art for purportedly appropriating elements of visual poetry[23]. Furthermore, the magazine lambasted pop artists for their perceived complicity in perpetuating consumerist ideology, thereby diluting the potential for ideological subversion[24]. Although we could argue that the cover’s image of «Lotta Poetica» is reminiscent of Lichtenstein’s painting Revolver (1964).
Conceptually conceived as an instrument of artistic guerrilla warfare, «Lotta Poetica» emerged as an integral component of the broader social revolution unfolding during the period. Far from being a passive observer of the era’s tumultuous upheavals, the magazine actively participated in the dialectic of protest, positioning art as a potent weapon in the service of revolution. Miccini’s articulation of “guerrilla warfare”[25] encapsulates the ethos underpinning the magazine’s editorial vision ‒ a commitment to harnessing the full spectrum of visual and verbal communication tools to effect transformative societal change.
Indeed, «Lotta Poetica» emerged as a veritable bastion of resistance against the violence of mass-media saturation, the depredations of capitalist-political power, and the systemic oppression of women ‒ issues that reverberated profoundly within the socio-political milieu of the 1970s. Through its verbo-visual guerrilla tactics, the magazine galvanized a generation of artists and intellectuals, propelling them into the vanguard of a burgeoning cultural revolution aimed at dismantling entrenched power structures and ushering in a more equitable and just society.
Charting the Path to Women’s Liberation: A Discourse on Emancipatory Struggles
The artistic and political endeavors of female authors within the context of Italian visual poetry are intricately intertwined with the broader feminist movement of the nation[26]. Beginning as early as the 1960s, Ketty La Rocca emerged as a vocal critic of the prevailing sexual discrimination prevalent within society. Through works such as Sana come il pane quotidiano, La Rocca starkly indicted the systemic exploitation of women, a sentiment vividly conveyed through her juxtaposition of a nude photograph of Brigitte Bardot with an image depicting impoverished children in Vietnam. This juxtaposition served as a trenchant critique of the objectification of women within consumerist culture, exposing the stark dichotomy between the superficial allure of beauty and the grim realities of poverty and exploitation.
La Rocca’s artistic oeuvre, characterized by works such as Vergine, Dicono che lei…, Sono felice, Non commettere sorpassi impuri, Signora, lei che ama cucinare bene[27], continued to dissect the societal constraints imposed upon women, cynically scrutinizing their relegation to subordinate roles within the patriarchal and capitalist framework. Through works like Elettro…addomesticati, La Rocca further explored the semantic interplay between “domestic” and “domesticated”, employing visual puns to underscore the subtle mechanisms of subjugation embedded within the fabric of society.
In the 1970s, Mirella Bentivoglio revisited and expanded upon La Rocca’s thematic preoccupations, particularly in her renowned work Il cuore della consumatrice ubbidiente[28] (1976). Here, Bentivoglio dissected the nexus of male and capitalist violence inflicted upon women, symbolized by a heart emblazoned with the word “goose” (oca), bearing a striking resemblance to the iconic Coca-Cola logo. Through this visual conflation of consumerism and commodification, Bentivoglio illuminated the insidious mechanisms of mass-media violence that reduced women to mere objects of consumption, transcending mere sexual objectification to expose the broader social oppression underpinning consumerist culture.
In a manner akin to the disruptive performances of Marina Abramovic, Bentivoglio’s panels served to provoke a sense of disquietude, challenging viewers to confront the pervasive social pressures that consigned women to passive roles within consumerist society. Where Abramovic interrogated the constraints of traditional education, Bentivoglio castigated the insidious indoctrination perpetuated by consumerist ideals, exposing the vacuity of a life defined by materialistic pursuits.
Moreover, the emergence of feminine visual poetry within this milieu represented a concerted effort to address the multifaceted dimensions of social oppression, with Lucia Marcucci’s L’imprevedibile gioco del destino (1965) serving as a poignant illustration of the violence inflicted upon women, particularly in conflict-ridden regions. Similarly, Lamberto Pignotti’s Decomposition series and Michele Perfetti’s provocative juxtaposition of Lenin’s visage with a bikini-clad female body underscored the intersections of gender, politics, and cultural representation, challenging entrenched notions of female vanity and objectification within the “society of spectacle”. The society’s foundation, the family, is attacked in Lucia Marcucci’s Buum![29] (1972) in which a child imagines the explosion of his family group.
In essence, the visual poetry of female authors within the Italian context served as a potent vehicle for articulating the struggles and aspirations of women within a society grappling with entrenched patriarchal norms and consumerist ideologies. Through their incisive critiques and subversive artistic interventions, these women not only laid bare the systemic inequalities pervading society but also galvanized a collective consciousness aimed at fostering greater gender equality and emancipation.
Conclusion: Persevering Ideals in Visual Poetry
Visual poetry emerged as a compelling conduit for the ideological undercurrents of the tumultuous 1970s, evolving into a militant art form that elevated violence to the status of political ideology. Often, its practitioners espoused left-wing political beliefs, reflecting a deeply ingrained commitment to social change and cultural revolution. They were not merely passive chroniclers of the era’s upheavals; rather, they actively participated in and contributed to the ferment of protest and dissent that characterized the period.
The creative impetus of visual poetry surged in tandem with the vigor of the protest movements, attaining its zenith during the early 1970s. However, as the fervor of the protest movements waned, visual poetry likewise began to lose the vitality that had distinguished it. While visual poetry persists as a current art form, its most dynamic phase occurred within the experimental milieu of the 1970s, characterized by a fusion of innovative artistic techniques and impassioned socio-political commitment.
Despite its ambition to transform popular culture and challenge prevailing socio-political norms, visual poetry found itself marginalized due to its staunch ideological stance against commercialization and mass consumption. This paradox encapsulates the plight of engaged intellectuals of the protest era, who sought to awaken mass consciousness while eschewing conformity to mass tastes and commercial interests.
Thus, the depiction of the protest and revolt years by visual poets is characterized by irony, satire, passion, and experimentation. Sensitized to the injustices and violence prevalent in society, groups like Gruppo 70 waged a verbal and political battle for the emancipation of marginalized groups, advocating for equality, justice, and peace. Their vision encompassed an earnest and intellectually stimulating cultural landscape aimed at fostering public awareness and enlightenment.
While the ultimate success of visual poetry in effecting societal change may be subject to debate, its enduring legacy endures as a testament to the enduring power of art as a vehicle for social critique and emancipation. Through their tireless advocacy and creative expression, visual poets have bequeathed a legacy that resonates well into the 21st century, underscoring the enduring relevance of their noble struggle for emancipation through art.
- See note n. 7. Two of the group’s leading theorists are Eugenio Miccini and Lamberto Pignotti. ↑
- According to Pignotti and Miccini, as explained by Adriano Spatola, the distinction between the two types of collage lies in the emphasis on the vastness and complexity of the linguistic and figurative content employed in Large Collages. The notion of Large Collage is connected to the realm of mass communication. The layering of various informational levels creates a distinct language that conveys additional meaning, necessitating active participation from the reader to decipher the satirical undertones (see A. Spatola, Verso la poesia totale [Toward Total Poetry], Salerno, Rumma, 1969, p. 110). ↑
- See Poésure et Peintrie: «d’un art, l’autre», Marseille, Exposition organisée au centre de la Vieille Charité, Musées de Marseille, 1993; Concrete Poetry?, Amsterdam, Stedelijk Museum, ed. Liesbeth Crommelin, 1970; M. E. Solt, Concrete Poetry, Bloomington, Indiana University Press, 1968; R. Kostelanetz, Imaged words & worded images, New York, Outerbridge & Dienstfrey, 1970. ↑
- A. Spatola, Verso la poesia totale, cited, p. 14: «La poesia cerca oggi di farsi medium totale, di sfuggire a ogni limitazione, di inglobare teatro, fotografia, musica, pittura, arte tipografica, tecniche cinematografiche e ogni altro aspetto della cultura, in un’aspirazione utopistica al ritorno alle origini». ↑
- L. Pignotti, Una forma di lotta: contro l’anonimato dei prodotti in serie della civiltà tecnologica, Milano, Mondadori, 1967. ↑
- See L. Pignotti, Sine aesthetica, sinestetica: poesia visiva e arte plurisensoriale, Roma, Empiria, 1990. ↑
- In these books the authors are members of the first Florentine verbal-visual group (Marcucci, Miccini, Ori, Pignotti), poets of the Genoese area (Giorgi, Tola, Ziveri), poets “novissimi” who try new experimentations (Balestrini, Giuliani, Porta), poets of the Neapolitan area (Bonito Oliva, Luca, Martini), and Adriano Spatola. ↑
- A. Spatola, G. Landini, Manifesto per il Vietnam, in Poesie visive, sous la direction de Lamberto Pignotti, Bologna, Sampietro, collection «Il dissenso», n. 8, 1965. Adriano Spatola is considered the most important theorist of visual poetry. ↑
- For a study of the works of Eugenio Miccini see: E. Miccini, Catalogo generale delle opere di Eugenio Miccini, by Carlo Palli, Colognola ai Colli, Parise Adriano editore stampatore, 2010. ↑
- For a study of the works of Lamberto Pignotti see: L. Pignotti, Lamberto Pignotti. Poeta politico. Opere dal 1945 al 1977, Torino, La Bussola, 1977. ↑
- For a study of the works of Michele Perfetti see: M. Perfetti, Da ogni punto un altro, Ferrara, Centro Ipermedia, 1984; Id., L’eccezione ineffabile (al di qua della parola al di là dell’immagine), Ferrara, Comune, 1985; Id., La bellezza di perdersi nella bellezza, Ferrara, Cartografica Artigiana, stampa 1990. ↑
- For a study of the works of Sarenco see: Sarenco, Sarenco. Opere degli anni ’60 e ’70, [s.l.] [s.d.]. ↑
- For a study of the works of Paul de Vree see: P. de Vree, Paul de Vree, Roma, Carucci, 1975; Id., Verzamelde gedichten, Nijmegen, Gottmer; Brugge, Orion, 1979. ↑
- L. Pignotti, S. Stefanelli, Scrittura verbovisiva e sinestetica, Pasian di Prato, Campanotto editore, 2011, p. 156: «La poesia visiva scende in campo come un mezzo di trasformazione attiva della società, sia a livello del linguaggio e dei mezzi paralinguistici, sia a livello dell’appoggio alla lotta di classe mondiale (sfruttati contro sfruttatori)». ↑
- Sarenco, in Poesia Visiva. What to do with poetry, La collezione Bellora al Mart, catalogo mostra a cura di G. Zanchetti, D. Ferrari, Silvana editore, Milano, 2005, p. 54: «Ogni classe, in ogni società divisa in classi, ha i suoi criteri particolari, sia artistici che politici, ma tutte le classi, in tutte le società divise in classi, mettono sempre il criterio politico al primo posto e quello artistico al secondo […] ciò che noi esigiamo è l’unità di politica e arte». ↑
- See L. Caramel, Arte in Italia negli anni ’70: opera e comportamento (1970-1974), con testi di Elena Di Raddo, Ada Lombardi, Roma, Kappa, 1999. ↑
- G. Debord, La société du spectacle, Paris, Buchet-Chastel, 1967. ↑
- See F. Fedi, Collettivi e gruppi artistici a Milano, ideologie e percorsi 1968-1985, Milano, Endas, 1986. ↑
- E. Miccini, L. Marcucci, Situazione della nuova poesia in Italia, in «Lotta Poetica», a. II, n. 11, April 1972, p. 5: «Si tratta di violenza ad ogni livello. Ma per quanto ci riguarda da vicino, come poeti, la violenza è la trasgressione delle norme della tradizione linguistica e stilistica; trasgressione della logica spietata della società opulenta e del suo razionalismo cinico e autoritario». ↑
- Over the years three series of «Lotta Poetica» are printed. The first series is published for four consecutive years, from 1971 to 1975, and consists of 50 issues; the directors are Sarenco and Paul De Vree. The second series begins in 1982, the year of De Vree’s death. It is directed by Sarenco and was published until 1984. The third series consists of only two issues, published in 1987 and directed by Sarenco and Miccini. ↑
- The members of the editorial staff are: Alain Arias-Misson, Gianni Bertini, Julien Blaine, Jean-Francois Bory, Paul De Vree, Jochen Gerz, Sten Hanson, Ewerdt Hilgeman, Bengt Emil Johnson, Peter Mayer, Henry Martin, Eugenio Miccini, Nahl Nucha, Michele Perfetti, Carlo Alberto Sitta, Miroljub Todorovic, Jiri Valoch, Franco Verdi, Nicholas Zurbrugg. See: A. Mangano, Le riviste degli anni Settanta: gruppi, movimenti e conflitti sociali, Pistoia, Centro di Documentazione di Pistoia, 1998. ↑
- Sarenco, Editoriale 1, in «Lotta Poetica», n. 1, 1971, p. 3: «[…] impostare una battaglia continua a due livelli: a) a livello linguistico per la distruzione delle strutture culturali della società borghese; b) a livello politico a fianco dell’avanguardia della classe operaia e del movimento degli studenti». ↑
- See, for example, the first article Poesia visiva e conceptual art/un plagio ben organizzato, in «Lotta Poetica», n. 1, 1971. ↑
- See, among others, the statement by Ketty La Rocca: https://flash—art.it/article/ketty-la-rocca-raffaella-perna/. ↑
- Excerpt from a communication by Miccini and Perfetti at the 5th International BITEF in Belgrade on the theme: new aspects of international visual poetry. E. Miccini, Situazione della poesia visiva italiana, Brescia, Firenze, Sarmic, 1972, s.p.: «La Poesia Visiva si scontra con il nemico indirettamente: la Poesia Visiva non si nasconde nei monasteri durante l’infuriare della guerra e neppure passa nelle file del nemico: è un cavallo di Troia […] La Poesia Visiva, dunque, è guerriglia: e, in quanto tale, si serve non solo della parola o dell’immagine, ma anche della luce, del gesto, insomma di tutti gli strumenti “visibili” del comunicare, e deve necessariamente e progressivamente tendere a trasformare i propri mezzi in quelli delle comunicazioni di massa fino ad impadronirsene per trasformare con essi la società stessa». ↑
- In those times, women were searching for underrepresented female artists that remained anonymous due to gender inequality. Moreover, female art was promoted by publishing houses, such as Edizioni delle donne founded by Anne-Marie Sauzeau. Together with Carla Lonzi and Lea Vergine, Anne-Marie Sauzeau was one of the activists who brought together the political militantism of the feminist movement of the 1970s and the art world. With her texts, Sauzeau also conveyed the theses of internationally important feminists such as Luce Irigaray and Julia Kristeva in Italy. The authors analysed in this section are linked to this movement. For example, Mirella Bentivoglio published a study aimed at highlighting female Futurist artists (M. Bentivoglio, F. Zoccoli, The Women Artists of Italian Futurism. Almost lost to history, New York, 1997). ↑
- For a study of the works of Ketty La Rocca see: Poesia visiva: Gruppo 70: omaggio a Ketty La Rocca, a cura di Valerio Deho, Castelvetro, Comune, 2004; Id., Intermedialità al femminile. L’opera di Ketty La Rocca, a cura di Elena Del Becaro, Milano, Mondadori Electa, 2008. ↑
- For a study of the works of Mirella Bentivoglio see: Materializzazione del linguaggio. Magazzini del sale alle Zattere, 20 settembre-15 ottobre, a cura di Mirella Bentivoglio, Venezia, La Biennale, 1978; M. Bentivoglio, E. Maurizi, Effetto donna. Palazzo Oliva, Sassoferrato, 15 luglio-15 agosto 1984, Macerata, Coopedit, 1984. ↑
- For a study of the works of Lucia Marcucci see:L. Marcucci, Poesie visive, [s.l.] [s.d.]; Id., Lucia Marcucci. Poesia visiva, Firenze, Studio Inquadrature 33, [s.d.]; Id., Lucia Marcucci. Poesie visive 1963-2003, a cura di Lucilla Saccà, Firenze, Centro d’arte Spaziotempo, 2003. ↑
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